Chhayavad

An AI representation of the four pillars of Chāyāvād

Chhayavad (ISO: Chāyāvād) refers to the era of mystic-romanticism in Hindi literature, particularly Hindi poetry, spanning approximately from mid-1910s to early-1940s, and was marked by an increase of romantic and humanist content.

It was marked by a renewed sense of the self and personal expression. It is known for its leaning towards themes of love and nature, as well as an individualistic reappropriation of the Indian tradition in a new form of mysticism, expressed through a subjective voice.

The movement is typically attributed to Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi Nirala, Sumitranandan Pant, and Mahadevi Varma, often cited as the four pillars of Chāyāvād. Their writings reflected a conscious blending of classical Indian heritage with modern sensibilities. The movement delved into love as a spiritual and transformative force, reverence for nature as a source of solace, and the individual’s quest for identity and connection with the divine. These themes incorporated traditional values with the evolving ideas of freedom and self-expression during the country’s struggle for independence.

It marked a lyrical, poetic, and musical zenith in Hindi literature. Emerging as a reaction to the didactic nationalism of the Dwivedi era and the courtly traditions of poetry, it introduced a new aesthetic. Anchored in modern sensibilities, it concluded with the rise of the experimental spirit of Prayogvad and the socially engaged Pragativad, together reflecting the dynamic evolution of Hindi poetry in the early 20th century.

Eytmology

The literal meaning of "chāyā" carries various interpretations, including shade, such as from a tree or cloud; reflection, like that in a mirror; and shadow, as cast by an object.

The term chāyā appears in the Upanishads, where it refers to the universe as a phenomenal reflection of transcendental reality. This interpretation is supported by the broader intellectual environment of that time, when figures like Vivekananda and Rabindranath Tagore were revisiting the Upanishads and introducing modern interpretations of ancient texts.

Some researchers have proposed that the term may have associated with the poetic style exemplified in Tagore's Gitanjali which itself was influenced by Romanticism of English literature.

The first use of the term Chhayawad in the context of Hindi poetry is attributed to Mukutdhar Pandey, who introduced it through his collection of essays in 1920. Namvar Singh notes that the essays were presented with annotations, suggesting that commentaries on Chhayawad already existed. Scholars agree that the essence of Chhayavad began to take shape around the mid-1910s, predating its formal recognition in 1920.

Historical Context

Development

Until the early 20th century, Hindi poetry followed traditions that had developed over several centuries across various medieval literary forms. The first attempts at modern standardized Hindi poetry, based on Khari Boli, emerged during a surge of literary activity in Varanasi in the 1860s, centered around Bharatendu Harishchandra. It was primarily characterized by bhakti (religious devotion) or riti (courtly love) themes. The Bhartendu yug introduced innovations, such as using Braj verse in dramas to comment on contemporary issues, but these did not gain lasting traction.

A significant shift in Hindi poetry occurred with the founding of the magazine Sarasvatī in 1900, under the editorship of Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi. While initially appreciated more for its social and literary goals than for its aesthetic value, the Dwivedi yug marked a transformation in the content of Hindi poetry. Poets of this era moved away from the limited scope of rītī poetry and began addressing themes such as nationalism and social reform. A defining work of this period is Maithilisharan Gupt’s 1912 poem Bhārat-Bhāratī, which exemplifies the nationalist sentiment of the time. Dwivedi-era introduced didactic themes that shaped the discourse of Hindi literature through the second and third decades of the 20th century.

Simultaneously, a younger generation of poets emerged on the fringes of the literary establishment, rejecting both the ideal prosaic moral earnestness of Dwivedi-era poetry and the narrow scope of rītī traditions. Their reaction against earlier styles and themes led to a revolution in poetic sensibility, ultimately giving rise to the Chhayavad yug.

Period

The Chhayawad period is generally dated between 1918 and 1938, though some critics and scholars propose slight variations for its inception. This period of literary flourishing coincided with the aftermath of World War I, and extended through the interwar years, culminating in the early 1940s as World War II commenced. Hence, this poetic stream aligns with global trends of introspection, and cultural revival in post-war societies. The Chhayawad era also coincided with India's escalating struggle for independence, intertwining personal emotions with the collective aspirations for cultural identity and an implicit desire for political independence.

Definition

By critics

Prominent critic Ramchandra Shukla in his Hindi Sahitya ka Itihas asserts that Chhayavad should be understood in two senses. First, in the context of mysticism, where it relates to the subject matter of poetry, depicting the poet's eternal and unknown beloved through highly imaginative language. Second, as a particular poetic style, where the focus lies in expressing the unmanifest through the shadow of the manifest. Chhayavad generally represents an artistic response against the dry, narrative style of the Dwivedi era.

Hazari Prasad Dwivedi noted: “Chhayawad stemmed from an inward orientation of the mind and a steadfast belief in the changing human condition. The poets of this era were endowed with exceptional sensitivity and keen awareness of social disparities and discord. Stylistically, they were markedly distinct from their predecessors, focusing primarily on subjectivity. By 1920, Khadi Boli poetry still emphasized themes, but subsequently, the poet’s own emotions and sentiments took precedence. The significance of the theme itself became secondary, while the poet’s inner resonance with it became paramount.

Namwar Singh wrote “Regardless of its literal meaning, the term *Chhayavad* practically refers to the collected works of poets like Prasad, Nirala, Pant, and Mahadevi written between 1918 and 1936. It is the poetic manifestation of the national awakening of that era, striving to break free from old traditions on one hand and foreign domination on the other.”

Nand Dulare Bajpai defines Chhayavad as the subtle yet manifest beauty of nature imbued with a spiritual aura, offering a universally accepted explanation of the movement.

By the contributing poets

Jaishankar Prasad stated that when poetry moved away from the mythological narratives or external descriptions of women’s beauty in different lands and began expressing self-experienced emotions rooted in pain, it came to be termed Chhayavad in Hindi. He also noted that this poetry relied more on Indian aesthetics of experience and expression. Its distinctive features included suggestiveness, figurativeness, beauty, the depiction of nature, and the nuanced articulation of personal emotions.

Mahadevi Varma viewed the philosophy of Chhayavad as rooted in universalism (sarvatmavad) and identified nature as its medium. Her interpretation infused life into the ancient relationship between humans and nature, often depicted as a reflection of each other. She believed Chhayavadi poetry establishes a profound emotional bond with nature, evoking universal empathy and unity with all elements of the world. She regarded mysticism as a natural progression of Chhayavad.

Sumitranandan Pant considered Chhayavad to be influenced by Western Romanticism.

Notable authors

Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala', Sumitranandan Pant and Mahadevi Varma are considered as the four pillars of the Chhayavadi school of Hindi literature.

Jaishankar Prasad

Main article: Jaishankar Prasad

Prasad

Prasad was born in 1889 in Varanasi into a prosperous family with a strong association to Shaivism. His family’s enterprise was focused on the trade of snuff and tobacco. His early education began at home, studying Sanskrit, Hindi, Persian, and Urdu, before he got enrolled at Queens College.

He had a deep interest in religion, history, archaeology, and gardening. Music was a lifelong inclination, and he appreciated both classical forms and lighter styles. His works often include love in its diverse forms, the profound exploration of pain and anguish, the complexities of the human condition, the pursuit of spiritual ideals, and the examination of historical and mythological narratives.

Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala'

Main article: Suryakant Tripathi

Nirala

Nirala was born towards the end of the 19th century at Mahishadal in Midnapore in Bengal Presidency. He independently started deciphering the grammar of modern standard Hindi by studying two Hindi journals available to him in Bengal: Sarasvatī and Maryādā.

He revolutionized Hindi poetry by pioneering the use of free verse. Nirala's poetry illustrated a profound connection with the living spirits of nature. His mystical poems, rich with the devotion of medieval Bhakti poetry, explored nature within a metaphysical framework that aligned with his Advaita beliefs. Themes of minority subjectivity, social critique, and social upliftment also appeared frequently in his writings.

Sumitranandan Pant

Main article: Sumitranandan Pant

Pant

Pant was born in Kausani in 1900. He grew up in a village and always cherished a love for the beauty and flavor of rural India, which is reflected in all his major works. He was known for romanticism in his poems which were inspired by nature, people and beauty within.

His works showcase a blend of innovation and emotional depth, marked by free verse and prose poems. Renowned for his vivid imagery, rhythmic variety, and charm, his contributions extend beyond poetry, highlighting his brilliance as a prose stylist, essayist, and critic.

Mahadevi Varma

Main article: Mahadevi Varma

Mahadevi

Verma was born on 26 March 1907 in Farrukhabad, Uttar Pradesh. She significantly impacted Hindi literature by refining the language and infusing poetry with heartfelt acceptance of Indian philosophy.

Her unique blend of emotional intensity, lyrical simplicity, and evocative imagery, along with her contributions as a translator and scholar, solidified her position as a leading figure of the Chhayavad movement. Her poetry, along with her work towards social upliftment and women's education, were depicted in her writings. These works greatly influenced both readers and critics.

Others

Other important figures of this literary movement were Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar', Harivansh Rai Bachchan, Makhanlal Chaturvedi, Ramkumar Verma and Pandit Narendra Sharma.

Notable works

Jaishankar Prasad's Kamayani (1936), Aansu, Nirala's anthologies like Anamika (featuring iconic poems such as Ram Ki Shakti Puja and Saroj Smriti), Parimal, Naye Patte, long poem Tulsidas, Mahadevi's Rashmi, Neerja, Deepshikha, and Yaama, and Pant's Pallav and Gunjan, along with Harivansh Rai Bachchan's Madhushala (1935), are considered some of the important works of this school.

Reception

Initially, Chhayavad was very well received by readers and critics alike. However, subsequent scholars have criticized Chhayavad for excessive use of decorative language, romanticism aloof from contemporary social and economic malaise, and setting stricter rules on meter and rhyme.

Harivansh Rai Bachchan became excessively critical of Chhayavad later in his career and was associated with other genres like Rahasyavaad and Pragativaad.

Chhayavad continued until the latter half of the 1930s, when the golden era of modern Hindi poetry was gradually replaced by social didacticism inspired by rising nationalist fervour. Some of the later poets of this era, like Dinkar, Mahadevi and Bachchan took nationalist and social critiquing within their poetry.

References

• Romantic Poetry in the Era of Convention
• Chhayavad study in The Journal of the American Oriental Society, Jul 1, 2001
• Rubin, David (1998). The Return of Sarasvati: Four Hindi Poets. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195643695.
• Ritter, Valerie (2011). Kāma's Flowers: Nature in Hindi Poetry and Criticism, 1885-1925. State University of New York Press. ISBN 9781438435671.
• Mayrhofer, M. (1992). Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen. Germany: C. Winter.
• Turner, Ralph Lilley (1969–1985). A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages. London: Oxford University Press.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
• Singh, Namwar (2018). Chhayavad (in Hindi). Rajkamal Prakashan. ISBN 9788126707362.
• Gupta, A. (2018). "East-West Romanticisms: Understanding Indian Romanticism through Chhayavad - A Study in Comparative Indian Literature". J Adv Res Eng & Edu. 3 (2): 1–5.
• Hindi Language
• Historical Development of HindiArchived 14 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
• "Chhayavaadi Movement". Archived from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 29 April 2008.